US Foreign Policy
Neutrality
The first established foreign policy of the United States was one of neutrality or non-involvement. Having just defeated the English and gaining our independence, the US faced the challenging task of creating a new nation. In an effort to guard ourselves from involvement in the wider conflicts of the Europeans and focus on domestic affairs, a course of neutrality was followed. The roots of this initial policy can be seen as early as the presidency of George Washington.

Washington's Proclamation of Neutrality
Within weeks of Washington's inauguration in 1789, the French Revolution began. As the revolution intensified and became more bloody, the English sought to exploit the weakness of the French government. While conflict between the French and English intensified, America was caught in the middle. American loyalties were divided between the French who had aided in America's revolution and the English to whom cultural and economic ties were greatest. Washington decided that neutrality was the best course, thereby avoiding the war altogether.

Washington's Farewell Address
When he left office in 1796 after serving two terms as president, Washington delivered a farewell address filled with advice and cautions to the fledgling nation. While he also warned against the divisive problems of political parties, it was his call for neutrality and avoiding alliances that set the course of US foreign policy.
Washington cautioned the nation to "steer clear of permanent alliances", noting that even temporary treaties or alliances were acceptable only under "extraordinary emergencies". It was this tone set by Washington's words and his presidency that established neutrality as the first foreign policy of the United States.

The Monroe Doctrine
It would be President Monroe's 1823 address to Congress that would again mark a major milestone in US foreign policy. The Monroe Doctrine as it became known was meant as a warning to the nations of Europe to end the colonization of the Western Hemisphere. The doctrine stated that the establishment of new colonies or the disruption of newly independent colonies in the Western Hemisphere would be taken as a direct threat to US interests and "dangerous to our peace and safety". The Monroe Doctrine also promised that the European non-involvement in the Western Hemisphere would be met by US non-involvement in European affairs. Essentially it reciprocated European neutrality in the Americas with US neutrality in Europe. While not well received by the European nations, many ignoring the statement by the then weak American government, the Monroe Doctrine did establish a key policy in our foreign affairs and reinforce the message of neutrality established by Washington. This would prove the main US foreign policy up through the US Civil War.

 
Imperialism
By the middle of the 1890's the American western frontier was viewed by many as being "closed". This was seen as the fulfillment of the westward expansions started under the banner of "manifest destiny". The public perception of the "closing of the west", along with the philosophy of Social Darwinism, contributed to a desire for continued expansion of American lands and the spreading of American culture. The result was a shift in US foreign policy at the end of the 19th century from a reserved, homeland concerned republic to an active imperial power.

The Spanish-American War

The "USS Maine" pictured here in Havana Harbor, Cuba

The Spanish-American war heralded the start of the era of American Imperialism. In the shadow of the expanding empires of Europe, an America that now stretched from sea to shining sea was desiring to still grow.

Causes of the Spanish-American War:

  • Cuban Revolution - The Spanish suppression of an on-going Cuban revolution gave the cause of war an air of independence and freedom. Aiding the Cubans, who's suffering was exaggerated by the Yellow Press of the day, became a reason for war with the Spanish.
     
  • Yellow Press - The newspaper circulation war had already begun long before a shot was fired in 1898. William Randolph Hearst (pictured at right) and Joseph Pulitzer used hyperbole, lies and sensational violence in order to increase sales of their NY papers. The often times untrue stories of the Spanish brutality in Cuba served to outrage many Americans and increased the call for war.
     
  • Sinking of the USS Maine - The US warship USS Maine was stationed in the harbor of Havana, Cuba when it exploded, killing over 260 Americans. The Yellow Press ran immediate headlines blaming the Spanish for the explosion, however a conclusive reason behind the Maine disaster is still unknown. Regardless, the act was clearly sparked an immediate call for war with the Spanish.
     
  • US Desires to Expand - Many American leaders who wanted the US to expand her reach across the globe, recognized that defeating a weak Spanish Empire offered an opportunity to gain territories outside north America. These territories would then provide access to world markets for growing manufacturing by US industries.

US Imperial Gains, Late 19th to Early 20th Century:

  • 1898:
    • US Annexes Hawaii after a US supported revolution against the Queen.
    • US acquires control of: Puerto Rico, Guam and The Philippines from Spain in the 1898 Treaty of Paris.
  • 1899:
    • US acquires control of: Samoa and Wake Island in the Pacific for use as military and trade ship refueling stops 
  • 1903:
    • Panama Canal Zone is acquired following the US backed Panamanian Revolution against Columbia.
  • 1917:
    • Virgin Islands purchased from Denmark

US Expands Control in Latin America
Following the transformation to a world power, brought about by the events surrounding and following the Spanish-American War, the US sought to further extend its control over the nearby territories of Latin America.

This policy expansion was mostly at the urging of President Theodore Roosevelt, who worked to increase US presence in Latin America via his Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. The Corollary expanded on the statements of President Monroe by stating that not only would Latin America be considered a vital US interest and European interference there considered a threat to the United States, but the US would and could actively intervene in Latin America to protect those interests.

 
Isolationism
Following our involvement in World War One, the United States entered a nearly two decade long period of isolation from world affairs. The result was not only a rejection of leadership and membership in international organizations, but a restricting of our borders and an anti-foreign feeling among society.

US Rejects the Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations
The United States Senate rejected the Treaty of Versailles for a variety of reasons. Politically, Democratic President Woodrow Wilson was unpopular with the Republicans who controlled the Senate. He had also failed to gather any input from them in negotiating the treaty and stubbornly refused to allow changes. Wilson's poor health also stopped his active campaigning for the treaty among the American people.

The provision that the Senate objected to the most was US membership in the League of Nations. The league was the creation of Wilson and was intended as an international peace-keeping organization, intended to prevent the reoccurrence of a wide scale conflict like the "War to end all wars" (WWI). Many were uneasy at the provisions of the League that called for common defense and the possible command of US forces by foreign leadership. These oppositions, along with the public's desire to distance the US from foreign affairs, lead to the rejection of US membership.

Without strong support from the US, the League seemed doomed for failure from the start and never achieved the lofty goals of world peace intended by its creator.

US Isolationism Takes Hold at Home
Restriction of Immigration - The United States had always been a nation formed by and for immigrants. The heritage of the nation is one of providing an opportunity for peoples from all over the world to strive for a better life in America. However, during the isolationist policies that followed the First World War, many called for a curbing of immigration as a way to reduce foreign influence on the nation.
Laws such as the Immigration Act of 1924 and the Emergency Quota Act severely restricted the numbers of immigrants allowed into the country.

Protectionist Policies - In an attempt to protect US businesses and curtail economic ties with much of the world, the US instituted a series of high tariffs in the 20's and 30's that limited imports. The reaction of many nations was to pass retaliatory tariffs on US products, resulting in a general breakdown of international trade. This isolation from the world economically would eventually be one of the contributing factors in the causing the Great Depression of the 1930's. 

 
Internationalism
Following World War Two, the US refused to again make the mistakes of isolation and rejection of international agreements that were made in the twenties. This time the US did not isolate and retrench, instead helping to create the United Nations and NATO, as well as foster international trade and cooperation through agencies such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.

The United Nations
The United Nations is an international organization founded at 1945 at the end of World War II.. It was the successor to the failed League of Nations that had been formed after the First World War. However, the United Nations had the full support and funding of the United States (the headquarters of the UN is centered in New York City) and more significantly was endowed with a military force to provide its directives with some backing. The League of Nations had lacked an such military powers and that was regarded as the chief reasoning behind its failure.

The United Nations is headed by the five permanent members of the Security Council, the United States, Russia, Great Britain, France and China (reflective of the allies of WWII). Other members of the council are elected and serve on a rotating basis. The most significant power of the security council is the ability to veto UN initiatives that have been approved by the General Assembly, of which all member nations are voting members.

UN initiatives such as the "police action" of the Korean War and securing of East Timor in Indonesia highlight the ability of the UN to mobilize military personnel in defending nations from aggression. Other UN initiatives include the World Health Organization, focused on the distribution of food and medicines. Also of significance is the International Court of Justice located at The Hague, a world forum for the prosecution and trial of war crimes charges against aggressive national leaders committing "crimes against humanity".

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
NATO was formed in 1948 as a "collective security" force to resist the further spread of communism in Europe. Following the Second World War the USSR did not withdraw from the nations of Eastern Europe that it had liberated from Nazi control, instead forcing in communist regimes under Soviet domination. As the "iron curtain" fell, the democratic nations of Western Europe, the United States and Canada designed NATO as a resistance to further spread. The communist bloc nations, under Soviet control, formed the Warsaw Pact as a communist collective security arrangement to counter the NATO agreement.

NATO was founded under the concept of collective security or "collective self-defense" as it is termed in the NATO charter. This concept calls for any attack on a NATO member nation to be perceived as an attack upon all NATO member nations. This idea of collective security is fundamental to NATO's success, the threat of a collective response kept the spread of communism in Europe in check and helped maintain peace and stability in Europe for the past 50+ years.

In recent years NATO has expanded its membership, in the wake of communism's fall the nations of the former Warsaw Pact such as Poland and Czechoslovakia have been welcomed into the organization. The NATO alliance has not only served as collective defense, but furthered economic ties and cooperation between the member states. Also in recent years NATO has taken a more active role in preventing European aggression before it sparks wider conflict. The 1999 NATO bombing campaign in Serbia and Kosovo as well as the stationing of NATO troops in the former Yugoslavia to maintain peace serve as the best example of NATO's this evolving role in the post-Cold War world.

Southeast Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO)
Active from 1954-1977 SEATO was designed similarly to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and intended to prevent the spread of communism. However, unlike NATO, SEATO did not contain the collective security provisions that called for an attack upon one member as being an attack upon all member nations. Following the US involvement in the Vietnam war, the organization was disbanded as the willingness of member nations to defend against communism declined.

Organization of American States (OAS)
 Founded in 1948 as another international organization intended to repeal the further spread of communism, the OAS covers the 35 nations of the Western Hemisphere.  The treaty requires member nations to assist other member nations in resisting armed attack as well as negotiating conflicts between members in an effort to achieve a peaceful resolve to disputes. The OAS also works to promotes the development of democratic governments and protect human rights in the regions in addition to encouraging economic development, social and cultural exchange between members

 
Cold War

VS

During the waning hours of World War Two, a different type of war began. A Cold War of ideas and politics, of economies and technologies. The Cold War was not one event, but rather a series of events connected together by the rivalry and polarization between the communist and capitalist systems. The Cold War was fought by third parties in developing lands and by scientists and heroes in a race for the moon. It was the build up of nuclear arsenals and the delicate balance that kept the world from teetering. 

The timeline below presents a brief summary of the major events of the Cold War. Areas of colder relation indicate times at which the ideologies and policies of the United States and the USSR were at their most divisive, the warmer relations indicate times at which cultural exchange and cooperation helped ease the nuclear tension.

 (NOTE: See "Cold War page link)